The land abounds in these natural remedies and to classify the plants, give their names and describe their properties, the presence of a botanist would be required. It is certain that many illnesses are cured by these people and they have their remedies for everything, many quite effective. For this reason not a few prefer their herbs and roots to our unguents and salves. [Reply by a missionary at Mission San Antonio as to what knowledge the natives had of medicines (Geiger and Meighan 1976:71)] |
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
This paper provides a brief overview of semi-traditional Ohlone medical
beliefs and practices, especially those using plants, as they existed in
the nineteenth and early decades of the twentieth century. Since much of
the data on which this overview is based was collected more than 100 years
after the European colonization of Ohlone territory, this paper is not strictly
about Ohlone medical beliefs and practices, but rather about " Californio-Rumsen/Mutsun
Ohlone" medicine. By the time anthropologists began working with the
Native Californians, the Ohlone had become well assimilated into California's
Mexican-American and Euro-American communities. As a result, non-native
medical beliefs and practices, including the use of plants for curing, had
been acquired by the Ohlone. In addition, during the nineteenth century,
hundreds of non-native plants were introduced into, and had become an integral
part of, the California landscape. The Ohlone added many of these to their
already extensive herbal pharmacopoeias. Consequently, Ohlone medical ethnobotanical
data combines aboriginal and acquired beliefs about both native and non-native
plants. Also, the bulk of the data collected by anthropologists came from
members of the Rumsen and Mutsun language groups (whose territories included,
respectively, the Carmel and Salinas River valleys, and the upper Santa
Clara Valley and the upper Pajaro River and lower San Benito River drainages).
Therefore, this paper reflects the cultural understandings of only two of
the more than two dozen traditional Ohlone nations.
MEDICINE PERSONS
The Ohlone, like many other California Indian nations, had several types
of medicine persons. Some were well versed in the use of herbs, others,
such as the weather shamans, could make rain begin or end, and still others
could transform themselves into grizzly bears and then back into human form.
But the most prominent shamans were the curing shamans, individuals who,
according to the priests at Mission San Juan Bautista, in Mutsun Ohlone
territory, "cure by chanting and by gestures and shouts" (Geiger
and Meighan 1976: ). Curing shamans gained knowledge and mystical power
through direct contact with spiritual beings and they used their power for
curing, though they also possessed the ability to foretell the future, find
lost objects, call in game animals, remove ritual contamination, as well
as using their supernaturally acquired powers to bring about disease, misfortune,
or even death (Harrington 1942:2, 39).
Almost all of the specifics concerning traditional Ohlone shamanism are
no longer known. It is known that both women and men could become shamans,
and in some instances a novice shaman obtained supernatural power during
visions induced by ingesting decoctions made from the hallucinogenic plant
Jimsonweed [1].
And all novices were trained by an older shamans. But precisely how one
entered into the profession, what other means of acquiring supernatural
power (other than ingesting Jimsonweed) existed, and what the shaman's relationship
to her/his spirit helpers was "are all matters on which the evidence
is lost" (Kroeber 1925:472).
THEORIES OF DISEASE
CAUSATION
What sorts of beliefs the Ohlone held prior to European colonization concerning
the causes of illness and disease is unknown. Data from the mission period
and later suggests, however, that they, like most other Native Californians,
attributed all disease, misfortunes, traumas and death to either natural
causes and/or supernatural agencies. Minor and/or transient illnesses (common
cold, common headaches, common childhood ailments, rashes, sores, indigestion
from obvious causes), traumas (fractures, sprains, wounds), and muscular
and skeletal disorders such as rheumatism and arthritis were regarded as
a normal condition of life. However, persistent, major, or unusual illnesses
were most often attributed to supernatural causes, either "from the
incantations of their enemies" (Forbes 1937:121-122) or from the activities
of a malevolent shaman, or in rare instances, an offended or malevolent
spirit. In the latter case, a shaman or malevolent spirit magically "shot"
into a person's body an intrusive, sickening object (Kroeber 1925: ). The
object might be anything-- a fingernail, the hair of a dead person, a ball
of coyote fur, a small pebble or a grain of sand, pieces of jagged flint,
a live lizard, or an insect. A shaman might initiate an intrusion for any
number of reasons including: enmity toward the victim, or toward the victim's
parents, or because the shaman had been hired to do so, or because the shaman
hoped to collect a fee from the victim for removing the illness.
It is impossible to draw a hard-and-fast line of demarcation between the
natural and supernatural classes of disease, for even the simplest of afflictions
may have explanations savoring of the mystical. For example, a bone lodged
in one's throat was usually the result of carelessness in swallowing. But,
if it could not be removed by coughing and swallowing, supernatural causation
was feared and a shaman's services were sought. Nevertheless, a fundamental
distinction remained with respect to disease causation and curing: whereas
some illnesses could be self-treated others required the assistance of highly
trained, supernaturally endowed shamans.
METHODS OF TREATMENT
Curing existed along a continuum, with certain variables determining the
action of a sick individual, including the number and persistence of symptoms,
the perceived seriousness of symptoms, the extent of social and physical
disability resulting from the symptoms, and available information and medical
knowledge. Some illnesses required the assistance of shamans or herbalists,
while others could be self-treated, or tended by members of one's immediate
family. If the symptoms were few or mild, or did not require drastic alterations
in the individual's everyday routine, then that individual most likely entered
into self-treatment. If, for example, a person was suffering from a mild
headache, indigestion, or a mild sore throat, the sick individual may not
consider disease object intrusion or witchcraft as the probable cause of
discomfort, since such causes would be reserved for more serious symptoms.
Self-treatment would suffice and the individual would use various home herbal
remedies. The headache might be treated by rubbing onto the forehead a paste
made from pulverized California Nutmeg
nuts mixed with fat, while simple indigestion could be treated by chewing
the Nutmeg's nuts, which acted as an
antacid. And the mild sore throat could be treated with any number of gargles
including a decoction made from Bull Nettle
roots or one made from a mixture of California
Wild Rose hips, little pieces of orange and pomegranate peel,
a small piece of alum, and Rattlesnake Weed.
However, should the headache, stomach upset, or sore throat increase in
duration or in intensity of discomfort, the individual might then consider
consulting an herbalist whose knowledge of appropriate plant- or animal-derived
medicines was more detailed and specialized. If these measures failed, then
a shaman might be consulted and asked to either apply her/his empirical
medical knowledge or to contact the spirit world to discover the precise
cause of the illness and how best to cure it.
In general, a shaman first prayed to her/his mystical power for assistance,
smoked tobacco (a sacred or semi-sacred act) or placed sacred herbs on a
fire, then sang special songs and danced into a transcendental state. While
in this state the shaman conferred with her/his spirit helpers in order
to locate the site of the illness, identify the cause, and determine the
best curing method. Once found, the shaman extracted the disease object
by applying her/his lips directly to the patient's body and forcefully sucking
the object into her/his mouth. Or sometimes the doctor would place one end
of a hollow tube (often a bone, or a branch from Elderberry, or a stone
pipe) at the location of the object and suck on the opposite end of the
tube. Sometimes the doctor made one or more shallow incisions on the patient's
skin over the location of the disease object and then applied suction. Once
the object was removed, it might be displayed to the patient and audience
(almost all curing took place in the presence of the patient's family, friends,
and sometimes all members of the patient's home community), then buried,
burned or sent back to the agent (human or mystical) who had thrown/shot/placed
it in the patient.
PLANTS and THEIR MEDICINAL USES
The following discussion of Ohlone herbal remedies is intended to acquaint
the interested person with some of their methods and plants used and should
not be taken as an encyclopedic compilation of the Ohlone's medical knowledge.
To do so would require an entire book since more than 100 native plants,
plus a host of introduced plants, were used in treating sickness and injury.
What is offered, instead, is a glimpse into their herbal pharmacopoeia.
Plant medicines were prepared and administered in many ways. External treatments
involved the use of salves, dry powders, pastes, bandages, bathing and/or
washing the afflicted area, poultices, both hot and cold packs, soaks and
infusions. Internal treatments ranged from drinking teas, to chewing various
plant parts or inhaling the smoke or vapor from heated plants, to the use
of purgatives and enemas. The method used depended on a host of factors
including the type of illness and its severity.
Some plants were ailment specific; others were used to treat a number of
disorders. For example, Yerba Santa was used to cure headaches (heated leaves were
applied to the forehead); asthma (chewing or smoking the leaves); rheumatism,
colds in their early stages, and tuberculosis (drinking a leaf tea). The
leaf tea also was ingested to purify the blood, wash sore or infected eyes,
or it was combined with other herbs and used to wash infected sores. Two
other multipurpose, cure-almost-anything plants were Black
Sage and California
Wild Rose . Black
Sage leaf decoctions were drunk to cure coughs, leaves were placed
in a bath to cure limb paralysis, and heated leaves, held against the ear,
reduced earache pain or if wrapped around the neck, they relieved sore throat
pain. California Wild Rose was used
for treating numerous ailments, including sunburns (applying a paste made
by frying the blossoms in olive oil); a sore throat or swollen tonsils (a
gargle, made by cooking in water Rose flowers, Rattlesnake Weed, several
small pieces of orange and pomegranate peels, and a little piece of alum);
scabs (treated with an ointment made by combining toasted, ground Rose flowers
with "a little hog kidney fat or olive oil"); fevers (a tea prepared
from a mixture of the plant's flowers, Rattlesnake weed, and Malva roots);
as well as indigestion and kidney ailments (a petal tea).
After European colonization, the Ohlone added to their already broad pharmacopoeia,
numerous non-native plants, some of which also were put to multiple purposes.
For example, a Lemon Balm tea was used to treat stomach aches, colic in
infants, and when boiled with orange blossoms and peels, it was drunk three
times a day for heart pains. And a tea made from the introduced Yarrow was
taken for treating a stomach ache, as well as washing skin sores. And heated
Yarrow
leaves were applied to wounds to prevent swelling;
the heated leaves also were held in the mouth to alleviate toothaches. Such
multiple uses for a single plant was not unusual; in fact, nearly fifty
per cent of all medicine plants used by the Ohlone had more than a single
use.
SKIN DISORDERS
One of the most ubiquitous plants in Ohlone
territory was (and still is) poison oak. Contact with any part of the plant,
or inhaling the smoke from burning poison oak plants, causes a painful dermatitis
for human beings. The Ohlone treated the rash with washes made from the
leaves of either Coffeeberry or California Bay
or the leaves and flowering tops of the
Gumweed ,
which also was used in treating several other types of dermatitis.
Sores were treated in numerous ways. Infected, open sores were washed the
water in which any one of a number of plants had been boiled, including:
Honeysuckle
(also used for bathing swollen feet), Figwort (twigs),
Bird's Foot Fern
(leaves; the wash was used primarily for facial
sores; or the heated leaves were applied as compresses), Monkey Flower (leaves), California Goldenrod (leaves), Vinegar Weed (leaves decocted with other herbs); the cooked hips of
the California Wild Rose (a rose hip wash was also
applied to scabbed over sores to hasten healing), or Yerba
Mansa (roots).
Sores (and wounds) were dusted with healing powders made from the finely
powdered Yerba Mansa roots,
or the entire Paint Brush plant, or Monkey Flower leaves or compresses of heated Figwort twigs, or heated Yerba Santa or Angelica leaves. Healing salves were made from the ground seeds
of either Wild Cucumber or Pineapple Weed seeds. Toasted and finely
grounded seeds of Mayweed , mixed with "yerba
del pasmo, and oreja de liebre," were fried in melted beeswax and olive
oil to make a healing salve, which was smeared on a cloth, then laid on
the sore. This treatment was repeated until the sore healed. Left over salve
was stored in a bottle or cup for future use. The juice from Violet was
applied fresh to sores, and on the following day the plants were boiled
and laid on the sores. Several European introduced plants also provided
medicines for treating sores. Washes were made from Yarrow (entire
plant) and Bittersweet (the leaves, fruit, or both
were mixed with the leaves of the native Centaury ).
Boils were treated variously: sometimes they were lanced, followed by warm
poultices made from the leaves of either Baccharis (cooked in animal fat), Figwort ,
or Nightshade
; rubbed with a pain relieving salve made of
ground Jimsonweed
leaves, or washed with a Gumweed decoction.
Hair and scalp care products were made from several different plants. Dandruff
was treated using a shampoo made by mixing the pounded stems and bulbs of
Soap Root
in a little water. Although baldness was uncommon,
it was not unknown and at least two herbal treatments were used to treat
it. To encourage hair growth, as well as keep the scalp and hair healthy,
the roots of either Wild Cucumber and/or Bracken were made into either a hair
rinse or a paste to be rubbed into the scalp. Or the scalp was washed with
a solution made from the leaves and twigs of Seep
Willow . And
to rid the scalp of lice a decoction prepared from California
Poppy flowers
was applied.
BURNS, WOUNDS, CUTS and
SIMILAR INJURIES
A decoction of California
Goldenrod leaves
was used to wash burns. Or burns were sprinkled with a healing powder made
from toasted and ground Sesaña , which permitted burns to
heal without scarring. For treating sunburns, an ointment made from California Wild Rose flowers fried in olive oil was used.
A variety of herbs were used in treating wounds. To ease pain and aid the
healing processes, leaf compresses made from either California
Mugwort or California
Sagebrush were
applied. Pain-killing teas also were made from the root of Yerba Mansa (this same tea also was used for disinfecting wounds).
The roots were dried, reduced to a fine powder which was then sprinkled
on the wound. Or the wound might be sprinkled with a powder made from the
finely pulverized stems and leaves of Baccharis (wounds also were washed
with a decoction made from the plant) or dried, powdered Sneezeweed . Other treatments included bathing wounds with a medicinal
preparations made from any number of plants, including Stonecrop leaves (the leaves and stems
were sometimes dried, reduced to powder and sprinkled on wounds), Buttercup , Golondrina (used for washing cuts),
and Gumweed ;
or applying compresses made from a species of native Yarrow or from Bedstraw . And to prevent wounds from swelling, heated leaves of
either the native or Eurasian Yarrow were applied as poultices.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The ethnographic literature contains references
to plant-based medicines that were used as "blood" and/or "heart"
medicines. Most of these were used to "purify," "tone,"
"clean," or "freshen the blood," important therapeutic
values since many illnesses were believed caused by "bad" blood.
In addition, there were some plant-based medicines that were administered
for such symptoms as chest or heart pains, while a few were simply said
to be "highly regarded as heart medicine."
A number of plants, prepared as teas, were used routinely, even daily, for
purifying, cleansing, and/or "thinning" the blood. Included among
these blood medicines were: Yerba Santa (leaves, fresh or dried);
Golondrina
(foliage); Rattlesnake
Weed (leaves),
Leather Root
(root), Spurge (various parts), Sea Lavender , California Maidenhair
fern (used for purifying the blood), or California Walnut leaves (taken to thin the blood).
Heart pains were treated by drinking three times a day the water in which
orange blossoms and peels and Lemon Balm had boiled while other heart
disorders were sometimes treated by drinking the water in which the fresh
leaves of Black Sage
had soaked.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory ailments were a common health
problem and were treated most often with herbal teas, some of which were
prescribed for their analgesic, or decongestant, or expectorant effects.
For example, the leaves of Yerba Santa , a proven expectorant, were
either chewed, smoked, or taken in a tea form, to cure colds, coughs, and
most pulmonary ailments, including asthma and tuberculosis. Respiratory
ailments also were treated with herbal poultices and salves, sometimes in
conjunction with teas, and sometimes as stand alone medicines. Chest pains
were treated with compresses of heated Jimsonweed leaves, Virgin's
Bower foliage,
or Trillium
. The roots of Narrow
Leaf Mule Ears were
pounded to produce a thick lather which was rubbed on the chest as cure
for various lung problems. Asthma was treated by drinking teas made from
California Mugwort
(leaves), Yerba
Santa (leaves),
Thistle (roots),
or California Sagebrush (leaves - the cooked leaves
were applied warm to the back and chest). Or asthma sufferers might smoke
or chew Yerba Santa
leaves or inhale the smoke from burning dried
Milkweed
plants.
Tuberculosis and pneumonia had a devastating impact on the Ohlone. Various
Spanish government documents from the mission period described "with
monotonous regularity" the death of the Indians at the missions from
consumption and pneumonia (Geiger and Meighan 1976: ). Treatments for both
these diseases relied mainly on teas made from a number of plants including:
Yerba Santa
(leaves), Nettles (roots), Manzanita (dried bark), or the introduced European native Hedge Mustard (seeds). Hedge Mustard seeds were wrapped in a white
cloth, immersed in a hot water, brought to a boil, the sack removed, and
the tea ingested. Or the cooked plant, in combination with olive oil, was
put on a cloth which was then placed on the chest to treat aching lungs:
"the mustard is hot and does not let the coldness go to the chest"
(Bocek 1984: ). Sometimes a decoction made from Bird's
Foot Fern was
prescribed to help cough up "bad blood." Pneumonia was treated
variously: drinking teas made from Peony roots; making shallow cuts
on the patient's back, followed by hot compresses of Coyote
Mint "to
draw out `bad blood." Coyote Mint also was used to make decoctions,
poultices and salves for treating other respiratory problems.
Cold and/or coughs were treated in various ways: teas made from Manzanita (flowers), Elderberry (flowers), California Everlasting
(leaves and/stems), Vinegar
Weed (leaves;
leaves also ground and then rubbed on the face and chest to relieve cold
symptoms), Rattlesnake Weed (usually taken in the early
stages of a cold), or Bluecurls (leaves ); salves for applying
to the chest and/or back and made from Bluecurls (leaves), or Milkweed (whole plant);
or washes made from California Sagebrush (leaves). Persistent coughs
were sometimes treated with teas made from the leaves of White or Black Sage , or the leaves of the introduced Horehound (this tea was also prescribed
for whooping cough), or with cough syrups made from the fruits of Honeysuckle , or the foliage from either Bird's
Food Trefoil or Owl's Clover . Sometimes, cold sufferers rubbed their forehead and nose
with a powder made from dried, ground Sneezeweed . The chills that accompany
colds were sometimes treated by soaking one's feet in a hot bath made from
a mixture of Manzanita (leaves), Elderberry (flowers), and Mallow (plant).
For relieving sore throat pain, poultices of heated leaves of either Black Sage or Bull Nettle were applied to the throat. Or one might gargle with either
a decoction made from Bull Nettle roots or one made from a
mixture of California Wild Rose hips, little pieces of orange
and pomegranate peel, a small piece of alum, and Rattlesnake
Weed . Other
gargles were made by boiling in water Curly
Dock and pomegranate
rinds, or the leaves and stems of Stonecrop . Swollen tonsils were treated
by drinking a Durango Root tea or gargling with the
water in which California Wild Rose flowers and Curly Dock had cooked.
The soothing and pain relieving properties of willow bark have been recognized
by most peoples around the world, and the Ohlone were no exception. Teas
made from the bark, young leaves, or flowers of Arroyo
Willow were frequently prescribed as cold
remedy, while Red Willow bark teas were used as a
fever remedy. Fever reducing teas also were made from the diaphoretic
Pineapple Weed ;
Dogwood (inner bark); Elderberry (flowers); California Wild Rose (blossoms and hips); Oregon
Ash (twigs
placed in cold water until it turned blue, signifying that the medicinal
sap had leached out); Phacelia (roots); Common Plantain (roots); Leather Root ; Chia
(seeds); Rattlesnake
Weed ; or Bird's
Foot Fern (fresh
leaves gathered in early winter).
In addition to treating fevers associated with the more common upper and
lower respiratory ailments, the Ohlone also attempted to treat "fever"
diseases such as scarlet fever and typhoid fever. For dealing with the former,
teas made from the leaves, or the leaves and berries, of Bittersweet were prescribed or a leaf decoction made from Nightshade , while teas made from either Storkbill (leaves) or Verbena tea
were drunk for typhoid fever. The Verbena
tea was also prescribed for an ailment
labeled "fever of the stomach."
EAR DISORDERS
An earache was treated variously: blowing
Tobacco
smoke into the ear; placing heated Rue leaves
inside the ear; applying against the ear heated poultices made from the
leaves of either Black Sage , Bull
Nettle , or
California Mugwort
; or heated stalks of the introduced Alfalfa .
EYE DISORDERS
Eye problems were common maladies. Some
eye problems, such as sore, irritated and inflamed eyes, may have been due
to the Ohlone's almost daily practice of sweatbathing. During sweats, a
fire was kept burning in the sweathouse. Since there were no openings through
which the smoke could escape, the sweathouse filled with smoke. Undoubtedly,
this contributed to various eye, throat, and lung ailments.
Washes were a common treatment for many eye disorders. Plants used to prepare
washes included Yerba Santa (leaves) and Golondrina (leaves). The dew that collected
during the night on the inside of the trumpet-shaped Jimsonweed flowers also was used to
wash sore and/or infected eyes. For treating poor vision, an eyewash made
from the juice of Figwort was used. And Figwort compresses made from the
leaves were applied as poultices as a treatment for sore eyes. And for removing
foreign particles from the eyes, one or more of the tiny gelatinous Chia seeds might be placed
under the eyelid, where they became soft and sticky, causing any foreign
particles to adhere to them, thus making it easy to remove the irritating
matter.
SNAKE BITES
For the Ohlone, as for most California Indians,
rattlesnakes were a fearsome, ever-present threat, just as they are today
among modern Californians. Unfortunately, there is little information on
how they dealt with snakebites, other than having a person who was bitten
by a rattlesnake drink a tea made from Rattlesnake
Weed . However, it is likely that they
also used the common California Indian procedure of making an incision or
excision, followed by suction applied to the area of the bite. The Ohlone
did, however, protect themselves from possible snake bites by placing fresh
leaves of the Oregon Ash tree in their sandals.
GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
DISORDERS
A number of plant species were used in
treating various urinary tract disorders. In general, treatments consisted
of drinking teas made from one of any number of plants: Mexican Balsamea were prescribed for urinary problems, as were teas made
from a species of California Sagebrush , Sea Lavender (also used in the treatment of venereal disease), and
California Buckwheat . Bladder problems were treated
with teas made from any one of several plants: Cocklebur (seeds); Horsetail (stalks); or Manzanita . The Ohlone also treated
urinary ailments with hot poultices of cooked Wild
Buckwheat ,
or decoction made from Curly Dock , although details on the
specifics of application are not now known. And for treating kidney ailments,
teas made from the dried stems of a species of Baccharis , or the berries of Fairy Bells , or California
Wild Rose hips
were prescribed.
DENTAL DISORDERS
Several remedies were used to relieve a
toothache: warm Yerba Buena leaves were held against
the outer jaw, or a strong tea was made from the leaves and held in the
mouth; Yarrow
leaves laid placed on hot stones, then transferred
to the aching tooth; or Nightshade leaves were rolled into a
cigarette and smoked; or Sagebrush leaves were held against
the tooth; or a decoction made from Buckeye bark was held in the mouth.
This same Buckeye
decoction, or one prepared from Tan Oak bark
or oak galls, also was used for treating loose teeth.
WOMEN'S MEDICINES
A tea made from Horsetail was used by women to treated delayed or difficult menstruation,
for bladder ailments, and to prevent pregnancy, while menstrual cramps were
alleviated by drinking a tea made from Yerba
Mansa roots.
This same root tea also was used by both women and men as a general pain
reliever. The leaves of Toyon were steeped in water to
make a tea which was drunk by a woman to suppress her menses. This same
leaf-tea was considered good for young girls as it cleaned their blood and
complexion, as well as promoted regular menses in them. A decoction made
from California Maidenhair was used to help expel afterbirth,
and as a general post-parturition tonic. Following childbirth, women drank
a tea made from Groundsel to prevent "lockjaw." Pregnant or lactating women
were said to avoid the California Poppy plant, as the smell was believed
to be poisonous. And a decoction prepared from the leaves of False Solomon's Seal was used as a contraceptive.
POPULATION CONTROL and
CONTRACEPTIVES
The Ohlone, like the majority of Native
Californians, lived in a rich and varied environment and population densities
were very high. However, high population densities can lead to problems.
If there is environmental stress, such as a shortage of food, pregnancy
may be strongly disapproved of. Having too many children too close together
can result in problems, such as lack of food easily digested by nursing
newborns. Furthermore, the rigors of supporting a large family in the gathering-hunting
economy placed additional stresses if families were too large. In order
to keep their population within the carrying capacity of the environment
the Ohlone practiced various forms of birth control, including sexual restrictions,
infanticide and abortion. They also used at least two plant-based contraceptive
medicines: the leaves of False Solomon's
Seal or the
stems of Horsetail were decocted in water which
was drunk by a woman to prevent conception.
CHILDREN'S MEDICINES
Just as parents today treat a sick child
with medicines specifically formulated for children, so too did the Ohlone.
This is not to say that a medicine used by an adult Ohlone was never used
by a child, or vice versa. However, there were some plant medicines which
were used especially for, or only in, treating medical conditions and illnesses
in children. Tea for treating fevers in children were made from a native
species of Mallow
(roots) or Mexican
Balsamea (stems and leaves). Sometimes
when fevers reached dangerous heights in children, convulsions occurred.
To treat the convulsions, the child's body was rubbed with a salve made
from a mixture Pineapple Weed , urine and crushed brick. Colicky infants sometimes were
given small amounts of a warm tea made from the roots of Sagebrush , or, in the
post-contact period, a decoction made from the European Lemon Balm . Or they were
simply picked up and held until the crying passed. When a child was restless
or unable to sleep, one or two California
Poppy flowers
were placed beneath her/his bed to help relax her/him.
NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM DISORDERS
Headaches were treated by inhaling the
smoke from burning Angelica roots, or by placing on the head dampened California Bay leaves or poultices made from heated leaves of a species
of native Mallow .
A Mallow leaf tea also was prescribed
for migraines. For pain in the limbs, the Ohlone living at Mission San Carlos
at the beginning of the nineteenth century would "bind fast an aching
leg, arm, etc., and say that by this means the pain is somewhat alleviated"
(Geiger & Meighan 1976:76). To treat numbness or paralysis in the limbs,
California Goosefoot compresses
were applied, or quantities of Black Sage leaves were placed in the
afflicted person's bath water. After European colonization, the introduced
Rue was added to the Ohlone's pharmacy as a treatment for paralysis
(as well as stomach pains, coughs, and earaches).
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
DISORDERS
Several consequences arise from living
a gathering and hunting life: arthritis and rheumatism, which are a result
of growing older and reflect the accumulation of wear and tear at the joints;
and a suite of physical traumas (fractures, strains, sprains, bruises, and
the pain and swelling associated with such traumas). All of these maladies
were fairly common among the Ohlone and were treated using a variety of
herbal and non-herbal therapeutics.
Rheumatism was treated in a number of ways. A person could first induce
sweating by drinking a hot decoction prepared from Mallow and Elderberry and when sweating stopped, rub the painful areas with a
mixture of toasted California Wild Rose flower petals and the fat
from a hog's kidneys. Or various pain relieving teas were used: California Wild Rose (hips), Yerba Santa (leaves), Monterey Cypress (needles). Or a rheumatism sufferer could chew Grayleaf
Pine pitch or apply compresses of cooked California
Mugwort plants
or heated Western Ragweed leaves to the aching and
painful joints. Rheumatic pains also were treated with washes made from
California Sagebrush
leaves, compresses of either warmed California Mugwort leaves or Bedstraw , or lightly whipped with
either burned twigs of Angelica or bundles of fresh Nettle .
Fractures also are common consequences of living as a gatherer-hunter lifestyle
and the Ohlone were adept at treating them. For example, at the beginning
of the twentieth century Ascencion Solorzano de Cervantes, one of the last
of the full-blooded Mutsun Ohlone and an herbalist, described for Harrington
her method of casting, claiming the method was "an ancient Indian one."
After setting the fracture she prepared the casting material by boiling
the outer bark of Cottonwood until a thick, syrupy gum
formed. This syrup was then spread thickly on a piece of buckskin and wrapped
around the fracture, then a splint tied on. The next day, after the gum
had solidified, the splint and hide were removed "revealing a cast
as hard as a modern plaster-of-paris one" (Martin 1977:17).
GASTROINTESTINAL DISORDERS
Stomach aches and/or indigestion were usually
treated by drinking teas made from any one of several plants: a native species
of Yarrow
(entire plant); Vinegar
Weed (leaves);
Blue Eyed Grass
(roots and narrow, grasslike leaves); California Everlasting
; various species of Bluecurls (leaves, sometimes combined
with the flowers); Pineapple Weed ; and Peony (roots). Peony tea
was sometimes enhanced with the addition of orange peels, Mayweed ,
and "well toasted, almost burnt, meat (or else the little skin of the
gizzard of a chicken)" (Bocek 1984: ). After cooking for some time,
the liquid was strained off, two or three teaspoons of olive oil were added,
and the concoction drunk a cupful at a time " while simultaneously
keeping warm and rubbing the stomach." This mixture also was drunk
to cure constipation, as was a tea made from the roots of the introduced
Common Plantain .
For treating diarrhea, the Ohlone sometimes
prescribed drinking the water used in the acorn leaching process. Usually,
however, diarrhea and associated stomach problems were treated with teas
made from : White Alder (bark); or the rhizomes and
roots of various species of the genus Rubus (Blackberry,
Raspberry, Thimbleberry ). The tea made
from Blackberry
was regarded as the most effective treatment
for diarrhea as well as dysentery. Dysentery also was treated with teas
made from Sagebrush
leaves, or Turkey
Mullein roots,
or the introduced Shepherd's Purse .
Enemas were used by some Ohlone for treating indigestion and complications
arising from overeating. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the
priests at Mission San Juan Bautista noted that such ailments were treated
by administering lukewarm water via a syringe or hollow cane "applying
it to the area they all know ... and thus try to regain their health"
(Geiger & Meighan 1976:78). Sometimes the enema solution was made from
marine algae, or after the coming of the Europeans, the boiled leaves and
roots of an introduced Mallow .
PURGATIVES -
A SPECIAL CLASS OF MEDICINES
The Ohlone used a number of plants as purgatives,
medicines which stimulated either emesis (expelling from the mouth) or catharsis
(expelling from the rectum), or sometimes both. The cathartics were used
primarily to treat constipation and included teas made from several different
plants including Coffeeberry (the dried, ground bark was
either cooked or steeped in water), Vetch (roots), introduced Common Plantain (roots), or a mixture of Peony
roots, Mayweed , orange peels, several teaspoons
of olive oil.
The emetics were more broadly used. Some were used to relieve the uncomfortable
feelings of nausea that accompany certain gastrointestinal illnesses. However,
many others were used to treat ailments having little to do with the gastrointestinal
tract. Why the Ohlone (as well as many other people) held a cultural expectation
that one treatment for certain ailments was to induce vomiting is not clear.
But that they held such an expectation is clear. For example, they prescribed
smoking the dried leaves of Jimsonweed , or drinking a tea made
from brewed Elderberry leaves when one's health
condition required a purgative. Unfortunately, there is no information about
what health condition required such a treatment. Similarly, a decoction
made from Clover
was used as a purgative, while the roots of
Wild Pea
, or a drink made from cooked Mallow leaves
were used to produce emesis, but it is not now known why a purgative was
induced. It was quite common for men to use Tobacco as an emetic, either by chewing
the fresh leaves or smoking dried leaves. This was done within both social
and ritual contexts, but for what exact purposes is not now know. The missionaries
at Mission San Carlos said that the Ohlone living there used the juice obtained
from the Soaproot root as a purgative, drinking
it "freely," along with sea water, to purge themselves (Geiger
and Meighan 1976:77). But for what purposes, the missionaries did not say.
NON-HERBAL THERAPIES
In addition to shamanic cures involving
the application of supernatural power, and the numerous herbal medicines
used in treating various ailments, the Ohlone also employed a number of
non-herbal treatments. Mention has already been made of their ability to
set and cast broken limbs. They also treated aching limbs, including sprains
and strains, by binding them "and say that by this means the pain is
somewhat alleviated" (Geiger and Meighan 1976: 73).
Missionaries at Missions San Carlos and Santa Cruz noted the use and beneficial
effects of sweatbathing: "The men have the daily custom of entering
an underground oven known as the temescal. It is our experience that this
is very beneficial for them" (Geiger and Meighan 1976: 76).
There are some indications that the Ohlone employed
trepanation--drilling a hole in the uppermost part of the cranium--to relieve
intra-cranial pressure (Margolin 1978:132). The Ohlone also knew how to
induce abortions, both pharmacologically as well as mechanically, as well
as control severe bleeding through the use of animal hair compresses. Massages,
cauterization of wounds, suturing of wounds, dietary restrictions against
fats and salt, massage, enemas, and bedrest, also were common medical procedures
and practices.
CONCLUSIONS
Ohlone medicine proceeded from their assumptions
about the nature of reality and they explained disease by reference to both
the natural and supernatural worlds. And even where there seemed to be a
"natural" explanation for a disease, there was always the chance
that supernatural agents were at work. When a disease was supernatural in
origin, the immediate cause was believed to be the presence of a disease-causing
object in the sick person's body. This object was placed there by malevolent
shamans, or less often by supernatural power beings. It could only be withdrawn
by a shaman who employed sucking as her/his primary extractive method.
On the other hand, common illnesses and traumas were treated by both shamans
and non-shamans with a suite of herbal medicines. The varied uses of plants
by the Ohlone indicate the large extent to which they understood and utilized
the natural resources of their environment. Today, the bio-medical model
is becoming more cognizant of its shared ground with folk medicine and increasingly
looks to indigenous health practices as sources of information. There is
much we can learn from the Ohlone about curing. After all, they have had
many thousands of years in which to learn and practice.
BOCEK, Barbara R.
1984 Ethnobotany of Costanoan Indians, California,Based on Collections by
John P. Harrington.In Economic Botany, 38(2):240-255.
FORBES, Alexander, Esq.
1839 California: A History of Upper and Lower California From Their
First Discovery to the Present Time. Smith, Elder and Co. Cornhill,
London.
GEIGER, Maynard, and Clement Woodward Meighan
1976 As the Padres Saw Them: California Indian Life and Customs as
Reported by The Franciscan Missionaries 1813-1815.Santa Barbara
Mission Archive Library, Santa Barbara.
HARRINGTON, John P.
1942 Cultural Element Distributions: XIX, Central California Coast.
Anthropological Records 7:1. University of California Press. Berkeley.
KROEBER, Alfred L.
1925 Handbook of the Indians of California. (Reprinted 1953 by
California Book Company, Berkeley).
MARGOLIN, Malcolm
1978 The Ohlone Way. Heyday Books. Berkeley.
VOGEL, Virgil
1970 American Indian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press.
1 For clarity I have not used scientific names for plants in the body of the text. All plants mentioned are listed below, alphabetically by their common name, followed by their scientific name.
COMMON and SCIENTIFIC NAMES of PLANTS MENTIONED
| Alfalfa - Medicago sativa, an Eurasian native Angelica - Angelica L. Arroyo Willow - Salix lasiolepis Baccharis - Baccharis Douglasii Bedstraw - Galium L Bird's Foot Fern - Pellaea mucronata Bird's Foot Trefoil - Lotus scoparius Bittersweet - Solanum Dulcamara, European native Black Sage - Salvia mellifera Blackberry - Rubus vitifolius Blue Eyed Grass - Sisyrinchium bellum Bluecurls - Trichostema L. Bracken - Pteridium aquilinum var. pubescens Buckeye - Aesculus californica Bull Nettle - Stachys bullata Buttercup - Ranunculus L. California Bay - Umbellularia californica California Buckwheat - Eriogonum fasciculatum California Everlasting - Gnaphalium californicum California Goldenrod - Solidago californica California Goosefoot - Chenopodium californicum California Maidenhair - Adiantum jordani California Mugwort - Artemisia Douglasiana California Nutmeg - Torreya californica California Poppy - Eschscholzia californica California Sagebrush - Artemisia californica California Walnut - Juglans californica California Wild Rose - Rosa californica Centaury - Centaurium Hill. Chia - Salvia Columbariae Clover - Trifolium L. Cocklebur - Xanthium L. Coffeeberry - Rhamnus californica Common Plantain - Plantago major, naturalized from Europe Cottonwood - Populus L. Coyote Mint - Monardella villosa Curly Dock - Rumex crispus, Eurasian native Dogwood - Cornus X californica Durango Root - Datisca glomerata Elderberry - Sambucus L. Fairy Bells - Disporum Hookeri False Solomon's Seal - Smilacina racemosa Figwort - Scrophularia L. Golondrina - Euphorbia maculata Grayleaf Pine - Pinus Sabiniana Groundsel - Senecio Douglasii Gumweed - Grindelia camporum Hedge Mustard - Sisymbrium officinale, European native Honeysuckle - Lonicera interrupta Horehound - Marrubium vulgare, naturalized from Europe Horsetail - Equisetum laevigatum Jimsonweed - Datura meteloides |
Leather Root - Psoralea macrostachya Lemon Balm - Melissa officinalis, European native Mallow - Malva nicaeensis Mallow - Malva parviflora, native of Eurasia Manzanita - Arctostaphylos species Mayweed - Anthemis Cotula Mexican Balsamea - Zauschneria californica Milkweed - Asclepias eriocarpa Monkey Flower - Mimuuls L. Monterey Cypress - Cupressus macrocarpa Narrow Leaf Mule Ears - Wyethia angustifolia Nettle - Urtica L. Nightshade - Solanum nigrum, native of Europe Oregon Ash - Fraxinus latifolia Owl's Clover - Orthocarpus Nutt. Paint Brush - Castilleja affinis Peony - Paeonia Brownii, P. californica Phacelia - Phacelia californica Pineapple Weed - Matricaria matricarioides Prickly Pear - Opuntia Mill. Rattlesnake Weed - Daucus pusillus Red Willow - Salix laevigata Rue - Ruta chalepensis, European native Sagebrush - Artemisia Dracunculus Sagebrush - Artemisia L. Sea Lavender - Limonium californicum Seep Willow - Baccharis glutinosa Sesaña - Navarretia atractyloides Shepherd's Purse - Capsella Bursa-pastoris naturalized from Europe Sneezeweed - Helenium puberulum Soaproot - Chlorogalum pomeridianum Spurge - Euphorbia L. Stonecrop - Sedum L. Storkbill - Erodium cicutarium Tan Oak - Lithocarpus densiflora Thistle - Cirsium Mill. Tobacco - Nicotiana L., N. Bigelovii Toyon - Heteromeles arbutifolia Trillium - Trillium chloropetalum Turkey Mullein - Eremocarpus setigerus Verbena - Verbena lasiostachus Vetch - Vicia gigantea Virgin's Bower - Clematis ligusticifolia Vinegar Weed - Trichostema lanceolatum Violet - Viola L. Western Ragweed - Ambrosia psilostachya White Alder - Alnus rhombifolia White Sage - Salvia apiana Wild Cucumber - Marah macrocarpus Wild Pea - Lathyrus L. Yarrow - Achillea L. Yerba Buena - Satureja Douglasii Yerba Mansa - Anemopsis californica |
Copyright © Chuck Smith, Cabrillo College, 1999