Difficult Students at Many Levels

At the Middle School and High School Levels

BEHAVIOR:

Rambling -- wandering around and off the subject. Using far-fetched examples or analogies.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Refocus attention by restating relevant point.
• Direct questions to group that is back on the subject
• Ask how topic relates to current topic being discussed.
• Use visual aids, begin to write on board, turn on overhead projector.

Say: "Would you summarize your main point please?" or "Are you asking...?"

BEHAVIOR:

Shyness or Silence -- lack of participation.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Change teaching strategies from group discussion to individual written exercises or a videotape
• Give strong positive reinforcement for any contribution.
• Involve by directly asking him/her a question.
• Make eye contact.
• Appoint to be small group leader.

BEHAVIOR:

Talkativeness -- knowing everything, manipulation, chronic whining.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Acknowledge comments made.
• Give limited time to express viewpoint or feelings, and then move on.
• Make eye contact with another participant and move toward that person.
• Give the person individual attention during breaks.
• Say: "That's an interesting point. Now let's see what other other people think."

BEHAVIOR:

Sharpshooting -- trying to shoot you down or trip you up.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Admit that you do not know the answer and redirect the question the group or the individual who asked it.
• Acknowledge that this is a joint learning experience.
• Ignore the behavior.

BEHAVIOR:

Heckling/Arguing -- disagreeing with everything you say; making personal attacks.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Redirect question to group or supportive individuals.
• Recognize participant's feelings and move one.
• Acknowledge positive points.
• Say: "I appreciate your comments, but I'd like to hear from others," or "It looks like we disagree."

BEHAVIOR:

Grandstanding -- getting caught up in one's own agenda or thoughts to the detriment of other learners.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Say: "You are entitled to your opinion, belief or feelings, but now it's time we moved on to the next subject," or "Can you restate that as a question?" or "We'd like to hear more about that if there is time after the presentation."

BEHAVIOR:

Overt Hostility/Resistance -- angry, belligerent, combative behavior.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Hostility can be a mask for fear. Reframe hostility as fear to depersonalize it.
• Respond to fear, not hostility.
• Remain calm and polite. Keep your temper in check.
• Don't disagree, but build on or around what has been said.
• Move closer to the hostile person, maintain eye contact.
• Always allow him or her a way to gracefully retreat from the confrontation.
• Say: "You seem really angry. Does anyone else feel this way?" Solicit peer pressure.
• Do not accept the premise or underlying assumption, if it is false or prejudicial, e.g., "If by "queer" you mean homosexual..."
• Allow individual to solve the problem being addressed. He or she may not be able to offer solutions and will sometimes undermine his or her own position.
• Ignore behavior.
• Talk to him or her privately during a break.
• As a last resort, privately ask the individual to leave class for the good of the group.

BEHAVIOR:

Griping -- maybe legitimate complaining.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Point out that we can't change policy here.
• Validate his/her point.
• Indicate you'll discuss the problem with the participant privately.
• Indicate time pressure.

BEHAVIOR:

Side Conversations -- may be related to subject or personal. Distracts group members and you.

POSSIBLE RESPONSES:

• Don't embarrass talkers.
• Ask their opinion on topic being discussed.
• Ask talkers if they would like to share their ideas.
• Casually move toward those talking.
• Make eye contact with them.
• Comment on the group (but don't look at them "one-at-a-time").
• Standing near the talkers, ask a nea-by participant a question so that the new discussion is near the talkers.
• As a last resort, stop and wait.

Dealing with Certain Types of Difficult Students

KEYS FOR MANAGING CHALLENGING STUDENT BEHAVIORS

• Instead of holding your students with an iron grip, allow them to be themselves until (and unless) their behavior distracts you or others in the class.
• When you notice unproductive behavior, nip it in the bud. Otherwise, you send a clear message to the students that it's OK for them to talk while you are talking, etc.
• Use classroom management techniques before you become irritated, impatient or upset. We are much more powerful when we are centered, when we like out students, and when we view our students with fondness rather than impatience.
• Allow students to save face. When we put students down in front of others, the entire class of students will turn against us.
• Do all you can to feel good about yourself and others on a daily basis. Your attitude will come across to your students, so it is important to be in good mental and physical shape.
• If, by chance, you feel that you have spoken sharply in an attempt to manager your students, own up to it. "Wow, that sounded harsh. Forgive me!"
• Remind yourself: "If teaching were easy, everyone would be doing it." Teaching in front of a classroom full of students can be challenging, but on the other hand, very rewarding!

Use Prevention

Ø      pay attention to unintended messages conveyed

Ø      articulate ground rules for classroom discussion and behaviour

Ø      outline how intellectual debate attacks ideas not individuals

Ø      show students the difference between passion and belligerence

Ø      make it clear your concerns are for all students, not just a few

Ø      write a contract between you and the students to codify expectations

Ø      establish ground rules

Classroom climate and teaching behaviours

Suggestions about how instructors can be responsive and effective and avoid difficulties:

Ø      celebrate diversity and respect for others

Ø      have students engage in self and peer-monitoring

Ø      encourage interactivity and personal contact

Ø      eliminate anonymity by learning names of students

Ø      be explicit and proactive about expectations

Ø      avoid the use of sarcasm or cynicism,

Ø      do not appear to be bored, tired, jaded or world-weary

Ø      set standards high and show students how to meet them

Ø      be fair and consistent in your evaluation methods

Ø      demystify the grading process by providing criteria and benchmarks

Ø      ask for feedback from the class as a whole and make adjustments

Ø      give formative feedback on a regular basis

Ø      share controversy and passion for the subject matter

Ø      “cover less; uncover more”.

When things go wrong
Start with prevention then and continue to monitor classroom climate and your own attitude and behaviours.  But what do you do when things do go wrong and the classroom climate turns chilly, sour, or downright ugly?  For the sake of the students and your own sense of integrity, avoid public displays of peevishness, irritation, anger or rage. Your students need to see you as someone with solid communication and negotiation skills with the large group and with individuals. 

Remember the unwritten “2 challenge rule”: if an issue has not been resolved after two queries, then the issue is probably best resolved at a later time outside the classroom.  A comment like “I would like to discuss this with you (and perhaps others who feel the same way) immediately after class” will go a long way to prevent a disagreement with one individual degenerating into a “me versus them” power struggle with the whole class.  You may then be able to redirect the discussion for the rest of the period and re-establish the norms of discourse.  This immediately puts the controversy or disagreement into a broader perspective. 

Conclusion
Stephen Brookfield has written reflectively on this subject in Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher (1995) and offers a suitable conclusion.  Marton (1988) talks about the “phenomenography of learning” and Brookfield connects it to teaching. 

“Teaching democratically is not to be confused with creating a laissez-faire atmosphere of intellectual relativism, where anything goes.  Neither does it mean an abdication of a teacher’s responsibility to judge the merits of what students do.  What it does mean is that we make an effort to create conditions under which all voices can speak and be heard (including our own), and in which educational processes are seen to be open to genuine negotiation .

At the K-12 Levels

Handling Difficult Students: Lessons from Mrs. G
This week’s Voice of Experience essay was submitted by Perri Gibbons, an instructional assistant in an urban Indiana school district. Gibbons has worked for several years with Deb Graudins, a master teacher with 25 years experience working with challenging students. Gibbons felt compelled to share the story of one student in particular, in the hope that some of the approaches Graudins uses might help other teachers deal with difficult students. For the purpose of this essay, we will call the student Kevin.

Kevin arrived at school after the school year was already underway. It should have come as no real surprise that he showed up at our door, since he has been enrolled in several schools -- including ours once before -- in the past two years. The word was out that, while enrolled in his last school, Kevin had accumulated an impressive record of poor academics and behavior. In one incident, he threw a chair at his teacher.

Soon after arriving at our school, Kevin was assessed by the school support team and introduced to our class. He entered our classroom with his low-slung pants, exaggerated "gangsta" walk and mannerisms, a lousy attitude, and an enormous chip on his shoulder.

Six weeks later, he announced to our class, "At first Mrs. G. was my worst enemy; today she is my best friend."

REACHING OUT TO KEVIN’S MOM

Mrs. Graudins used a variety of strategies to reach out to Kevin and bring about the transformation de described. Her first purposeful move was to reach out to Kevin’s mother and make her an ally.

Kevin’s mother, for a variety of reasons, had a lot of antagonism toward schools in general and toward our school in particular. For that reason, Mrs. Graudins had to focus on separating herself from the problems Kevin’s mother perceived. It was important for Kevin’s mother to know that Kevin was his teacher’s primary concern, not previous issues with other teachers, students, or the school.

Mrs. Graudins’s years of teaching experience had taught her that no child is ‘all bad,’ and that all parents need and deserve to hear positive things about the children they love. She provided Kevin’s mother with a regular flow of information. Whenever possible, that information celebrated news of good behavior and positive effort.

It wasn’t long before Kevin’s mother began to respond to the conversations Mrs. Graudins initiated. Many people were surprised when Kevin’s mother showed up at school for a scheduled conference -- after a string of no-shows for previous conferences. Mrs. Graudins’s effort to keep Kevin’s mother informed -- always done with respect and courtesy -- had paid off, it seemed. She showed up at the conference because she felt �safe,� confident that she would not be attacked or blamed or put on the spot.

FROM CLASS TROUBLEMAKER TO TEACHER’S ASSISTANT!

With help from the school’s support staff, Kevin soon had a chart on which his behavior was recorded at regular intervals during the day. Like all the other students in Mrs. Graudins’s class, Kevin also had a "goal card;" punches on his goal card provided quick reinforcement of good decisions and behaviors throughout the day. Special attention was paid to Kevin’s behavior during recess, lunch, and such special classes as art, music, and PE; historically, those less structured parts of the day had been problem times for Kevin.

In Mrs. Graudins’s classroom, a completed goal card carries a reward. Kevin usually chooses one particular reward -- the one that allows him to be Mrs. Graudins’s “teacher’s assistant” (TA) for a day. All the students understand the importance of that job. They know how Mrs. Graudins relies on her TAs. TAs wear special nametags and sit in a place of importance by her desk. They perform important tasks, including some simple discipline tasks such as rewarding "reading pillows" to those who are on task during literacy time.

When Kevin chooses to be a TA, he takes pride in handling the job seriously. Most importantly, he seems to identify with the teacher’s role in helping students learn and behave responsibly. As a TA, Kevin has come to understand that he and his peers bring problems on themselves when they make poor choices.

HEART-TO-HEART TALKS

Mrs. Graudins uses another intervention with students that I call "heart-to-heart talks.” During her heart-to-hearts with Kevin, she always makes certain he understands that she likes him very much -- even though she might not always like his behavior. She lets him know that her responses to his behavior are part of her job. It is her responsibility to make him a better student and help him learn. He might be angry about what she has to do, and he might even be angry at her for doing it, but she always takes time to remind him that she is not angry at him and that she cares about him. She tells him this even when he seems to be tuned out or is having a bad day.

From time to time, Graudins announces to Kevin, “I'm so glad you're in my class.” And she means it! Now I'm willing to bet that's something he's never heard before!

This is not to say that Kevin doesn't still test Mrs. Graudins by acting out occasionally, but he is learning that she does not give up on him. She holds high expectations for him, and she lets him know that she thinks he is capable of living up to those expectations.

Mrs. Graudins works on the premise that all children need and deserve physical affection too. She makes sure Kevin receives his share of shoulder-to-shoulder hugs, back and shoulder pats, and plenty of high-fives and smiles. In the beginning, Kevin seemed a bit uncomfortable with that kind of attention and would stiffen his body. Mrs. Graudins didn’t react to that rejection, however. She knew his reaction might be caused by pent-up anger. Perhaps he reacted that way because accepting such attention was counter to the “tough guy” image he attempted to put up. Or maybe he just didn’t know how to respond. But it wasn’t long before Kevin relaxed. Maybe other students’ responses to Mrs. Graudins’s physical attention modeled the appropriate behavior for Kevin. In any case, now Kevin even initiates high-fives!

AN ATMOSPHERE OF UNDERSTANDING

In the classroom, Mrs. Graudins teaches all students to understand the behavior of their peers, especially those who might regularly exhibit poor behavior. She even enlists students’ help in applauding one another’s successes and mentoring each other to make the best choices.

Recently, during reading time, Kevin and a group of his peers were discussing a passage about learning from mistakes. In the group, Kevin volunteered that he has had to learn things "the hard way." Mrs. Graudins didn’t just let that revelation pass. She picked up on Kevin’s comment. She was frank with the class about how difficult his student record had been and how hard he was working to improve it. The students picked up on the pride in her voice, and they echoed it to him. In addition, Mrs. Graudins regularly has Kevin stand on his chair to receive special recognition from the class for a job well done.

Kevin still makes mistakes. He still makes bad choices sometimes. But he is shedding his "bad boy" label as Mrs. Graudins continues to search for and refine ways to reach him and other troublesome students in her class.

I wanted to share Mrs. Graudins’s story because I'm proud of her achievements with all her students. She is one of many dedicated teachers who work so hard -- but receive too little recognition for their efforts. These are teachers who know they win their biggest rewards by making a difference in children's lives. These are teachers all of us can learn valuable lessons from

At the College Level:

1.  The hostile, aggressive, angry student

2.  The excuse-making student

3.  The silent, non-participating student

4.  The student who believes that current scientific knowledge is absolute truth.

Difficult Student #1: The Hostile Student

Case Study:  Bob shows up to class every day on time, and is apparently intelligent and well-versed in the scientific background of the class.  But during lecture, Bob attacks your position and point of view, and doesn't respect other students' opinions, dismissing them without due consideration.  He disagrees with your grading of tests and homework, saying that he deserves a better grade.  His criticisms towards you and the other students are personally directed and seemingly unconnected with the material you are covering.  Sometimes he mutters something non-verbal under his breath, and this disconcerts the surrounding students.

Solutions: The common thread running through the literature about disgruntled, unhappy, angry students is this: communication.  Most of the time, these students simply feel that they are not being heard, being listened to.  Giving them a forum, whether during class or in private during office hours, generally resolves whatever conflict is happening within the angry student.  The first instinct of the instructor might be to simply ignore them, and while this approach may avoid a public confrontation, it probably won't solve the underlying problem and allow the student to learn the material (McKeachie 1999).

            But communication, through the use of journals, minute papers, and other student writings can give you a clue as to the cause of the student's anger.  If the class doesn't lend itself to such writings, a direct conversation with the student may reveal something.  Listening carefully and respecting the student's opinion is crucial; giving him a voice and an opportunity to present his argument will bring everything into the open, and allow you respond calmly and rationally to his complaints (Downs 1999).

Angry and aggressive students can fall into many categories, including: a) students who violate rules, b) students who have given up, c) students who are manipulative or have a hidden agenda, d) students who don't communicate, e) students who are "at risk," or are being exposed to a dangerous environment, and f) students who push your buttons (Kotler, 1997).  And criticism from such a student can seem unwarranted and vicious, especially if it a) is uninvited, b) focuses on an aspect of the talk that seems irrelevant, c) is completely negative, d) has no suggestions for improvement, e) is shrill or sarcastic, and f) is accompanied by attributions such as personality flaws, like "lazy" or "stupid" (Raths, 1986).

But there are solutions.  Heslet (1977) proposes that the underlying problem is an inability to recognize different learning styles.  He makes a distinction between modes of "linear" and "organic" learning, which roughly correspond to a "passive" and "active" approach to classroom methods.  The linear method, preferred by most professors, is entirely directed by the instructor, and does little to motivate the student.  The organic method takes advantage of the students' natural curiosity, and puts more power in the hands of the student, giving him both freedom and a forum to express his opinions.

A more systematic approach is taken by Downs (1992), who proposes several "steps towards harmony" for dealing with angry and oppositional students.  The first step acknowledges the fact that some conflicts can arise from the instructor - if the professor is incorrect or unclear or unjust, and then steps must be taken to rectify the problem.  Communication in a private setting is the next logical option, as described above:  calm, rational discussion is crucial.  Finding a common ground is another good idea - by relating to the student you provide attention to a student who is starved for it, and you also model a professional, courteous attitude for the student to adopt. You can also try a cooperative group activity that encourages social skills, and by laying down guidelines for social interaction you can encourage a respect for other peoples' beliefs.  If your student is particularly argumentative, you must try to remain impartial, not taking attacks personally or becoming defensive.  Talking with your fellow teachers and colleagues can help you brainstorm a solution to the conflict.  If the class material is appropriate, you can include problem-solving and conflict-resolution activities into your lectures and discussions.  As a last resort, Downs recommends a direct confrontation with the student, giving both instructor and student a chance to voice their concerns.  Again, self-control, mutual respect, and diplomacy are crucial.

                    McKeachie (1999) offers some more alternatives.  In particular, if the issue in contention is controversial and worthy of class discussion, presenting the issue to the class can lead to a broader perspective for all involved.  Listing the pros and cons without value judgments on the chalkboard can bring out the underlying issues.  And if you think there is a chance that the angry student is in fact correct, you can table the issue that day, then report on it again in the next class.  

            Of course, preventative measures are preferable to reactive, after-the-fact solutions.  Aside from the obvious advice of maintaining an atmosphere of respect for everyone's opinions from the very start, there's not much advice for preventing hostile students from expressing themselves.  In terms of disputing tests, the best method seems to be requiring a written explanation of why the student's answer is superior to the "right" answer.  This technique eliminates the half-hearted grade-grubbers while giving the truly motivated, intelligent, and sometimes belligerent students an opportunity to explore the question in depth.  Multiple choice questions should be given with the direction of "Choose the BEST answer" to avoid situations where a question could be answered differently under rare (or impossible) circumstances.  Asking another faculty member can give you an impartial judgment to help you decide.

Difficult Student #2: The Excuse-Making Student

Case Study:  Janet is a senior Psychology major who needs to complete only 9 more hours until she can graduate.  She is a relatively good student, often making B’s in her courses.  She almost always comes to your class and seems to be attentive.  She will occasionally enter into the discussion, and seems to grasp the concepts. Janet, however, is often late turning in assignments.  She will frequently e-mail you with a reason why her assignment was late.  They are often very detailed excuses, including much personal information.  For example, when Janet turned in her Reaction Paper a day late, she e-mailed you to say that her roommate’s cat had died, and she needed to help her roommate take the body to the vet.  She asked that her paper be accepted and not counted as late, because she couldn’t have foreseen this tragedy.   

If this had been the first excuse, it might be easier to believe.  Unfortunately, Janet has had bad luck all semester.  She had also emailed you the day of the test to ask if she could take the test a day late.  Her mother was having surgery in Dallas and she needed to be there.  Individually, these excuses seem valid, but as a whole, they become hard-to-believe.  What should you, as the instructor, say to Janet regarding her requests to accept her late papers and tests?  What can you do at the beginning of the semester to prevent these situations?

Solutions: There are several issues to consider when dealing with the student who makes excuses.  First, the key reason why students make excuses is because they are not able to meet the deadline for either a test or an assignment.  Most often, the student did not prepare well enough ahead of time to meet the deadline or the task was more difficult than they predicted.  Although these students are the minority in the classroom, instructors can spend a substantial amount of time wading through the emails, voice mails, and office visits of a few students’ requests for extensions and acceptances.  Sometimes, students experience a crisis that requires them to miss a deadline.  As mentioned in McKeachie (1999), it is better to accept an untrue excuse than reject a legitimate one and be seen as unfair.  It is also important to be flexible (Downs-Lombardi, 1996). If the goals of the course are being met, flexibility can help students deal with juggling class assignments and emergencies. 

However, an instructor does not want to be known as gullible.  McKeachie (1999) suggests that you state in your syllabus that you will require evidence supporting extensions.  This will mean, however, that the instructor will have to follow through and require the evidence.  That may sometimes seem heavy-handed to milder instructors.  It may also mean keeping track of which students require which documentation.  

Most of the literature agrees that the best solution for dealing with students with excuses is to build in safeguards ahead of time, via the syllabus.  For excuses related to late papers, McKeachie (1999) suggests one possibility is to build in a series of graded penalties, based on how late a paper is (e.g., 5 points will be deducted for each day the paper is late).  Alternatively, one could offer bonus points for turning in a paper on time.  Therefore, all papers are accepted, but because it would be unfair to those who did not have extra time, there is a penalty.  The student’s “need” for excuses is reduced because the paper will still be accepted. 

Another solution for student excuses is to require students to turn in earlier stages of the assignment (McKeachie, 1999).  This helps the student who makes excuses because he or she is not prepared well enough ahead of time.  By requiring a reference section, outline, or early draft a week or two before the final paper, students are forced to plan ahead.     

For excuses related to missed tests, there are many options for how such policies can be described in the syllabus.  In an interview on difficult students, Dr. Ann Repp said that her policy was to give tests late only if she had been notified beforehand.  Otherwise, the student would get a zero for the test.  Her experience has shown that students who take the test late do not do better than those who take it on time.  Others (Dr. Rebecca Bigler, interview; Whitford, 1992) offer an essay only make-up exam to those students who notify them beforehand.  Because students consider the test difficult, only those that must tend to miss exams.  However, test scores confirm that both original tests and essay make-up exams are comparably difficult.    

Another option for dealing with students who must miss a test is to offer an optional, cumulative final.  All students who miss a regular test, regardless of the reason, must take the final (the final is also an option for those students just wanting to improve their grades).  This option reduces students’ excuses because they are irrelevant– a missed test is a missed test.  In other words, regardless of the reason, missing a test requires a student to take the final. 

By preparing a thorough syllabus ahead of time, you, as an instructor, will have a set answer for all of Janet’s excuses.  For late papers, it may be, “regardless of the reason, all papers will lose 5 points for each day they are late.”  For missed tests, it may be, “regardless of the reason, anyone missing a test will need to take the final.” Therefore, although Janet’s emails will still annoy you, your fairness as an instructor will be assured. 

Difficult Student #3: The Silent Student

            Case Study: Nina consistently arrives 15 minutes early for class and has never missed class.  She is a major and although she isn’t one of the best students in class, she does well on all of her assignments and has the potential for getting a B, and maybe an A by the end of the semester.  Nina completed a thoughtful and well-written research paper that conveyed a clear passion for her chosen topic and included a note at the end of the last page stating that she really enjoyed the assignment.  Nina appears to be interested and alert during class and demonstrates sufficient knowledge of the course content in her assignments.  However, she hasn’t spoken a word since she introduced herself on the first day of class.  She surely has something to add to class discussions and lectures, but only listens attentively and takes notes occasionally.  What might be keeping Nina from speaking in class?  If you were Nina’s teacher, how would you encourage Nina to speak in class and become an active participant?  What methods can be used to get students to share their thoughts and ideas with the class?

            Solutions: When students sit silent in class, a number of different factors could be to blame: boredom and fatigue, frustration with the course, lack of knowledge, a general expectation for and pattern of passivity in classes, cultural norms, and most often, fear of criticism and embarrassment (McKeachie, p. 54).  Regardless of the cause of such silence, the primary difficulty in each of these cases is a lack of free communication. 

            The specific content and level of difficulty in a course, the composition of students in the classroom itself, and personal characteristics and techniques of the instructor may all affect the occurrence and severity of the problem of silent students, yet every teacher encounters this type of student at some point. 

            The majority of suggestions provided in the literature emphasize a proactive approach designed to create a comfortable and stimulating environment from the first day of class that works to encourage active participation    Required participation may encourage students to feel more committed to a class, if the requirements are reasonable and relevant to the course (Lacoss & Chylack, 1998). For teachers who choose to encourage class participation by grading student participation, it is important to make sure that students understand why participation is important to a course and how it can help them.  Providing students with a written rationale, detailed expectations, explicit grading criteria, and a feedback form about their current participation grade along with ways that they could improve participation are all important to making required participation effective (Maznevski, 1996; Barnett, 1996). 

            Many of the most common suggestions for creating a classroom environment in which free communication and active participation exists are aimed at making students feel comfortable and safe in the classroom and help to make active participation easier.  Learning student’s names and allowing students to get to know one another can reduce student anxiety about being embarrassed or criticized when they participate.  Active learning and small group exercises like the clustering technique (Ventis, 1990), Jigsaw, and Fish Bowl may be effective in helping silent students to take part in class discussion.  Silent students may also find other avenues for participation (e.g., email or chat room discussion) a good way to be an active participant even if they do not speak during class. 

            Another means of encouraging participation is to allow students to consider a provocative question or personal experience, to write down their thoughts, discuss their ideas or responses in pairs or small groups, and then move to a general class discussion.  This allows students time to consider questions and issues relevant to discussion, organize their thoughts and ideas, and then share their own ideas based on their writing or those of their group (think-pair-share technique in Kagan, 1994) thus reducing anxiety over criticism directed at their own personal ideas or thoughts.  Having student complete a minute paper at the end of class or providing them with a thought question for the upcoming class period can help students to prepare and organize their thoughts for class discussion also. 

            Student may also be more apt to participate if the teacher asks questions that do not have a single answer, or asks students to think of personal examples or relevant experiences that they can share.  Asking students to raise their hands to survey class opinion is also easier than getting students to speak.  Furthermore, when students ask questions in class, it can be helpful for the teacher to turn to the other students in the class for input, as opposed to answering the question themselves.  Personal interaction with students and interaction between students in a class can be a tremendous help in making student feel “known” and thus more comfortable in participating. 

            By getting to know students and their personal interests and areas of expertise, teachers may call on students to participate in class discussions by adding personal knowledge in one of these areas.  Adding to discussion with personal expertise avoids the anxiety of participation in discussion of an area that is new or unfamiliar to students who are wary of speaking in class.  Emphasizing the value of active learning and participation, particularly the value of learning from other students, can also help with the problem on non-participating students.  McKeachie also suggests the following approaches to silent students:  smiling to encourage participation, calling students by name, seating students in a circle, requesting student autobiographies to get to know them, problem posting, buzz groups, and student presentations prepared in consultation with the instructor. 

A final approach that may be useful, particularly when 1 or 2 students are silent, yet the majority of the class engages in active participation is to speak to the student(s) directly.  Communicating to a student that their input is valuable to you and the rest of the class may also encourage a silent student to participate.  Beril Ulku-Steiner at UNC-CH reports that she occasionally uses the following line with persistently, silent students with great success: “Nina, I enjoy having you in class, but I feel as if you are one of my/our untapped resources.  Anything that you might have to share with the class during lectures or discussion is important to the class learning experience so if you ever feel like you can do that I would really appreciate it.”

            In sum, research and suggestions from teachers themselves suggest that creating a safe and comfortable classroom environment with expected active participation can come from:

·        cooperative and active learning activities

·        giving students a chance to speak in class, to one another, and via email/classroom sites

·        learning student’s names and helping them get to know one another

·        getting to know students and their interests through direct communication

·        speaking with students about their participation and its value

·        making discussion topics relevant

·        grading participation and providing students with feedback for improvement

Difficult Student #4: The Dualist Student 

Case Study: George seems very attentive in class. He writes diligent notes, recording your lecture by day and transcribing the tape by night. He appears to grasp the ability to recognize and recall information on exams and projects. However, he cannot apply his basic knowledge toward critical thinking required in open-ended answers and short papers. He has mentioned to you during office hours that he cannot discern which view represents the correct answer, and is afraid to insert his own perspective into essays, even with proper evidence, for fear that his viewpoint will be marked wrong.

Solutions: In his provision of a framework for understanding student cognition identification, Perry (1981) identified four main stages of intellectual development: dualism, multiplicity, contextual relativism, and commitment within relativism. For a detailed description of the Perry Scheme of Intellectual Reasoning and the attitude toward learning, perception of instructor, and valued critical thinking at each stage, please see Appendix 1. Understanding the cognitive stages of students allows instructors to tailor their teaching style to encourage higher-level thinking.

Perry Scheme of Intellectual Reasoning

*SOURCE: Gallagher, S.A. (1998). The road to critical thinking: The Perry scheme and meaningful differentiation. NASSP Bulletin, 82(595), 12-20.

Typically, incoming college freshmen (like George) have a dualistic understanding of knowledge. They view the professor as the central figure, the authority with the knowledge or “truth”, and the student as the passive recipient of that knowledge (Keeley, Shemberg, Cowell & Zinnbauer, 1995; King, 1994; Kloss, 1994; McKeachie, 1999). That is, the students may center their role in a university setting on rote memorization to reproduce information on an exam. For instance, George possesses a dualistic view of learning, evidenced in his quest for the “right” answer and his inability to recognize the presence of equally valid yet opposite theoretical perspectives. In general, students may resist learning to think critically due to lack of motivation to change, requirement of individual responsibility and self-direction, and lack of self-confidence (Keeley et al., 1995). Therefore, instructors must acknowledge the discrepancy between their own needs and desires and those of their students. By recognizing the intellectual perceptions of students, instructors can develop techniques to achieve a win-win situation in the classroom.

Appreciation of Perry’s notion of student learning should convince faculty to pay attention to not only the course content, but also the classroom situation and course organization (Keeley et al., 1995). To achieve a positive learning environment, instructors should rethink the quest for knowledge from the perspective of less complex learners, with the intent to provide students with “opportunities to discover and refine their own powers” (Moore, 1994). To guide critical thinking, particularly in the case of the dualistic thinker, create a safe learning environment in which risk is appreciated and encouraged. Also, promoting active learning and group participation also encourages individual thought that should lead to higher-level thinking.

Create a better learning environment. A classroom environment conducive to potentially controversial discussion depends upon the sense of safety and trust, where risk-taking is encouraged, not punished. Students must feel secure to question, to constructively criticize, and to disagree in order to appreciate multiple points of view and accept them as legitimate (Keeley et al, 1995; Kloss, 1994). Instructors need to set up “rules of engagement” for sensitive topics and provide concrete examples to allow multiple opportunities to practice complex thinking (Kloss, 1994; McKeachie, 1994). King (1994) suggests that faculty require students to explain concretely the reasons for any point that they reject; respond to overgeneralizations, absolute statements, and blanket appeals to authority with questions about instances in which the “authority” might be challenged; and strengthen the legitimacy of personal views and experiences. Rules such as these encourage individual responsibility and self-direction in classroom discussions while downplaying the lack of self-confidence of dualistic students.

Encourage developmental instruction. Structuring the classroom environment may encourage participation, but developmental instruction may help students to transition to the next level of intellectual reasoning. This method promotes diversity of books, instructors, and points of view; active learning through case studies, role playing, and interview projects; and personal meaning via divulgence of perspectives and constructive feedback (Kloss, 1994; Moore, 1994).

Instructors should be aware of the evolving roles of teacher and student throughout the Perry Scheme of Intellectual Reasoning. King (1994) warns that instructors should be conscious of the extent to which they rely solely on lecture, since this reinforces the notion of instructor as authority. Rather than encourage the dichotomy between faculty and student, instructors should facilitate student interaction with the material and with other students. Faculty should teach students to bootstrap their knowledge by constructing new information in terms of prior knowledge and experience, which furthers memory and application. For effective application of active learning principles, students must use their own words and experiences, not rote memorization of the text or lecture (King, 1994; McKeachie, 1994).

Incorporate lecture-based learning activities:

*SOURCE: King, A. (1994). From Sage on the Stage to Guide on the Side. College Teaching, 41(1), 30-35. 

Utilize small group activities.

In guided reciprocal peer questioning, groups of three or four students use a set of generic questions (e.g., What is the main idea of…? How does this relate to what I have learned before?) to generate their own specific questions. This activity forces them to identify relevant ideas, elaborate on them, and form connections with their prior knowledge. King (1994) reports that students who are taught to ask and answer thoughtful questions perform better on subsequent tests of lecture comprehension than do students who use other comprehension strategies such as unguided group discussion or independent review. Thus, the small group technique might help our fictitious George.  While guided reciprocal peer questioning provides a means to encourage thoughtful relationships within the discipline, constructive controversy may provide a better avenue for controversial issues. In this technique, pairs of students discuss opposing view of a topic, and then switch sides to argue the opposite side. This activity employs collaborative learning and meaning by emphasizing the importance of criteria and evidence to gain validity in a debate (Gallagher, 1998; King, 1994).

Integrate personal reflective activities. Faculty can advance student development of epistemological beliefs through debate and discussion in which competing ideas are challenged and defended. Small group activities can promote such learning, but some students may also benefit from journal writing and term papers that are both instructor-reviewed and peer-edited (Moore, 1994).

In sum, students in the dualistic stage of intellectual development, such as George, may reject peer viewpoints as a source of knowledge in their quest to find “the truth” due to the confusion differing paradigms may cause. However, exposure to multiple interpretations and diverse opinions should decrease the student’s faith in the “right answers” in lieu of a view in which various perspectives and uncertainty co-exist (Kloss, 1994).

Small group work often promotes the exchange and importance of multiple perspectives, in addition to allowing collaboration with peers in shared construction of meaning (King, 1994; Kloss, 1994).

Conclusion:

The four cases demonstrate the wide range of difficult student types. However, the approaches to defusing these problem students seemingly center communication and organization.  Open interaction between student and instructor through formal and informal feedback allows for a dynamic classroom environment that is beneficial to most individuals involved. Keeping in touch with your students is crucial, on several levels: you look for nods of understanding or grimaces of despair, and you listen to the students when they voice their concerns after class or in office hours.  Showing that you respect the students and their varied points of view is just enough to resolve most conflicts before they occur.  In addition to communication, organization and preparation can help to avoid problematic issues before they begin. Focusing on the syllabus and establishing "rules of engagement" at the beginning of the course sets the standards in the classroom. The combination of an open dialogue and a clear organization can provide the basis for a structured yet changeable classroom that can meet the needs of both instructor and student.

Each of us has been this kind of student before, frustrated, silent, manipulative, brilliant, totally secure in our previous knowledge…  It's just a matter of expanding our perspectives to include all of these mindsets, remembering what we used to be, how we overcame our innocence and our flaws, and helping our students reach the same place.

Why do things go wrong?

There are as many reasons for difficulties as there are students in a class perhaps, but we instructors do have some control over many of the variables.  From my observation of large lectures, including those with multi-media presentations, many students are bored and unmotivated by what Philip Johnson (1999) calls the “I-Know–You-Don’t- I’m-Going-To-Tell–You” school of teaching.  The literature on this subject suggests that undergraduates, particularly younger students, see it as part of our job to motivate them.  See, for example, Chickering & Reisser (1993), MacKeracher (1996), and Perry (1970).  To an undergraduate it is not the content that is intrinsically interesting (as it often is to us); rather it is our own passion for the subject, our own sense of eros (passionate desire for what is true and good) that students find engaging.   Justifiably, professors balk at the idea of having to “entertain” students.  But I am convinced that in order to teach, we need the tacit but willing assent to do so from the learners; to get that we need to intellectually and emotionally entice or seduce our students to join us in this activity called teaching and learning. 

In any number of large lecture halls I have observed students attending to their learning in a self-directed way, often by ignoring the professor down at the front.  Yes, some snooze, eat lunch, or visit with friends. My favourite image, however, is of the five students who were collaborating on completing a set of problems for a lab assignment.  They agreed that one student would monitor the lecture for anything “important”; one student would handle the calculator, one would draw the graphs, and the other two would write out the solutions to the problems. Such inattentiveness to the lecture is not merely rude or irritating behaviour (although it is understandable that the prof.  would interpret it that way); it is an explicit response to the structure of the learning environment – the lecture theatre itself.  As learners these students were organized and efficiently engaged in problem-solving; indeed the fellow who was supposed to take lecture notes kept being drawn into the problem-solving because it was more active and engaging.  The lecturer could surely learn something from these students about structuring the activities in his lecture theatre.  

 What kinds of problem students are there in the tutoring situation? Here is a short list: angry, aggressive students; attention seekers and those who dominate discussions; silent, inattentive or unprepared students; the flatterer, disciple and con man/woman; discouraged and defeated students; students with a million excuses; students who want the “truth” or even the “right answer”.


1. Disengaged-- The disengaged student often looks around  the room and has no eye contact with the tutor.
2. Unfocused-- The unfocused student often bounces around from topic to topic.
3. Blamer-- Nothing is the student's fault.  He or she never does anything wrong.  "It was not my fault that you were not in your office when I called at the last minute." 
4. "Yes but" student--Often the most helpless. 

Advice for tutors:

*Be clear about your role-Tell the student exactly what you can and cannot do for him or her.

*Ask, "What do you want me to do?"-If you ask, the student will tell.

*Focus on behavior, not attitude-Many times we look at attitude over behavior.  Some students may appear to have the worst attitude when in fact they could have a learning disability.  We should never criticize until we know the facts.  We can change behavior!

*Give a lot of positive feedback-No one likes criticism.   Positive feedback will keep the student interested in what you are saying.   Just put yourself in the position of the tutee.

*Be a broken record-Keep repeating yourself until you know the student has heard and understands you.  Sooner or later the student will hear you.

*Remember that it's not your fault-You are not the one who waited until the day before your paper was due to make an appointment. 

*Non-hostile statements are the best-"I'm sorry that you feel that way."

*Clarify the problem.  Ask the student, "How can I help you?"-   If you let the student know you are there to help, most times the student will start to open up and pay closer attention to you and your ideas.

The Tutor as Counselor

Problem: Can tutors respond adequately to the needs of the students without becoming psychoanalysts?

Solution: Four Steps to imparting your knowledge effectively to the students without becoming emotionally or personally entangled.

Have you ever experienced students becoming angry, frustrated, defensive, unfocused, or unwilling? Every student the tutor encounters possesses his or her own special abilities, emotions, and problems. These qualities often result in problematic issues that become obstacles to academic success. A tutor, in essence, is one who encourages academic development. A tutor acts as a teacher, one who instructs or supervises additional learning. Your job is to impart knowledge to the student, not to act as a psychologist. As a tutor, you are free to act as a friend, confidante, or mentor, yet these roles often inhibit the transfer of knowledge to the student and retention of that information by the student. There are five steps that offer the tutor the freedom to be a mentor, while effectively completing their job as an instructor.

Step 1: Listening and Observation

The tutor should approach each new situation with the knowledge that students are not one-dimensional. They do not appear, receive your guidance, and return to the next session for more of your blessings. Students think, feel, eat, sleep; they are human. Be aware of what your student is telling you verbally and non-verbally. Listen carefully to your student's statements and tone, and observe his or her behavior. Awareness is the key to solving learning obstacles effectively.

Step 2: Empathy

Often students experience frustration and anger as they encounter the difficulties the material presents; this frustration coupled with personal dilemmas can create a variety of learning obstacles for the student. Similarly, tutors have experienced frustration, anxiety, and anger in their personal and professional lives because, despite their brilliance, they are human also. Yet, most tutors do not present their human side during a tutorial, which leaves the student feeling inept, insecure, and fearful of the tutor as a god. Sharing personal experiences and difficulties can dissolve this image, while promoting student confidence, involvement, and trust.

Step 3: Body Language

Body language is often a key component indicating confusion, frustration, disagreement, or insecurity. Tutors are responsible for observing and interpreting the students' body language. Fidgeting, twirling hair, tapping fingers, staring into space, and biting fingernails are a few signs that indicate learning disturbances in students. Tutors must also control their own body language; a tutor's body language can distract students, while making them feel insignificant, inept, and boring. A tutor should refrain from using negative non-verbal communication such as bouncing legs, rolling eyes, and smacking gum. Be aware how powerful an impact body language can have on other people.

Observe your own body language in a tutoring situation. How could you improve?

Step 4: Objectivity

Tutors must maintain a respectful distance between themselves and their students. They can act as friends and mentors, but tutors should not let their personal feelings influence their judgment or instruction. This often is the most difficult step to achieve. Despite the desire to remain objective, human interaction makes that virtually impossible. There will be some students that you like or dislike, but as an instructor you must attempt to put aside those feelings during the tutorial.

These four steps are an attempt to help the tutor impart his or her knowledge to the student and instruct him or her about weaknesses without getting entangled in personal dilemmas. These steps are neither the only method nor a foolproof method. If you cannot tutor a student effectively or objectively, do not be afraid to refer the student to the necessary service. Remember: your job, as a tutor, is to teach, not to counsel.

How should a tutor handle a difficult tutoring session?
Although most tutoring sessions will probably go smoothly, there will be times when it seems little progress is made. Tutors should be familiar with different types of obstacles that often hinder the progress of tutoring sessions. The following are a few possible difficulties and possible approaches.

Showing You Care

Students will pay attention or care about what they are learning, when you care about them. Often dealing with difficult students is trying on a tutor because they don't seem to care about the material the tutor is interested in helping them with. When the tutor is interested in the student, the student will be more apt to care about learning.

The following are some ways to show students that you care:

• Be a welcoming person -- greet them by name at the beginning of a session with a smile.
• Be interested -- ask them questions about their likes and dislikes or simply, ``How are you?'' Then really listen to their answers. When you meet again refer back to the personal information you have shared. You may ask them what they thought of the performance of their favourite team or player last night.
• Don't be afraid to laugh with the student -- avoid laughing at them or their mistakes. Shared laughter is a good bond between people.
• Be aware of their accomplishments -- if you know that the student has done well in sports or other school activities, take the time to compliment them on their involvement and efforts.
• Set goals and recognize their achievements -- make sure that they know that you are aware that a goal has been achieved. They will be happy that you remembered and cared to notice.
• Smile and nod your head -- just as a person who is really listening nods towards a speaker, the tutor who is caring will smile and nod at their student.
• Don't ignore misbehaviour -- most students won't be afraid to test you. When they do, make sure that you remind them that you don't like what they did, but that you do like them.